Degradation+raw+material+production


 * AGRO-INDUSTRIALIZATION **

Definition: It is defined as the development of agriculture by incorporating corporate and industrial techniques. In recent times, this definition has been expanded to include: • The growth, distribution, and farm input provision off-farm. • Institutional and organizational change in the relationship between farms and food processing and distribution companies. • Consequent changes in farms e.g. product composition, technology and market structures

• Agriculture is rapidly changing in the world today. • In MEDCs it is becoming a complex business activity which is operated by large TNCs with global networks. E.g.PG’s tea (British company) with farms in Brazil and other countries. • Agriculture is also becoming mechanized, globalized and corporate owned. • Raw materials could be obtained from other countries and the product exported abroad. • It also involves transportation either by air, rail, road or sea.
 * Changing nature of Agro-industrialization **


 * Effects of Agro-industrialization **

1. The practice of monoculture by large TNCs causes significant damage to the natural environment. • Single crop draws nutrients from the soil, which is not replenished. • The addition of artificial fertilizers leads to the pollution of water bodies, changes in soil texture etc. 2. The use of chemicals such as pesticides, herbicides, insecticides and chemical fertilizers is harmful to the environment. • It is estimated that 430 million kilograms of pesticides are used each year in the USA. <span style="font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;,&#39;Lucida Grande&#39;,sans-serif;">• 10% of these chemicals reach the insects; the rest is released into the ground. <span style="font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;,&#39;Lucida Grande&#39;,sans-serif;">• Chemical build-up in the soil leads to algae growth which eventually causes anaerobic environment, leading to the destruction of natural plants and water life <span style="font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;,&#39;Lucida Grande&#39;,sans-serif;">3. The cost of cleaning up chemical pollution is expensive. <span style="font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;,&#39;Lucida Grande&#39;,sans-serif;">• E.g it now cost water companies in UK between 135 -200 million pounds to remove pesticides and nitrates from drinking water <span style="font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;,&#39;Lucida Grande&#39;,sans-serif;">4. It also leads to air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions from the farm. <span style="font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;,&#39;Lucida Grande&#39;,sans-serif;">• Eg.10% of UK’s greenhouse gases come from Methane (from animal manure) and nitrous Oxide (from fertilizer). <span style="font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;,&#39;Lucida Grande&#39;,sans-serif;">5. It leads to the removal of hedgerows, clearance of ponds and wetlands destroys the habitat of wildlife and the ecosystems, some which may be fragile. <span style="font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;,&#39;Lucida Grande&#39;,sans-serif;">• E.g 25% of British hedgerows have been removed between 1949 and 1990 in Norfolk. 6. The cutting down of trees eventually decreases the bio-diversity of both plants and animals.
 * <span style="font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;,&#39;Lucida Grande&#39;,sans-serif;">Environmental consequences of Logging **

<span style="font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;,&#39;Lucida Grande&#39;,sans-serif;">1. Case Study of forest Management – New South Wales, Australia <span style="font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;,&#39;Lucida Grande&#39;,sans-serif;">New South Wales has forest covering an area of about 60km from west to east and 160km from North to south. <span style="font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;,&#39;Lucida Grande&#39;,sans-serif;">Logging provides woodchips, the main raw material for paper. <span style="font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;,&#39;Lucida Grande&#39;,sans-serif;">Conflicts have arisen due to the impact of logging on the environment. <span style="font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;,&#39;Lucida Grande&#39;,sans-serif;">Arguments against logging in the Tropical rainforest
 * 1) <span style="font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;,&#39;Lucida Grande&#39;,sans-serif;">It leads to deterioration in water supplies.This is because parts of the forest where logging is taking place serves the catchment area for district water supplies
 * 2) <span style="font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;,&#39;Lucida Grande&#39;,sans-serif;">It results in bush fires, which destroy fauna and flora. This is due to the burning of leftover timber on the site. The Nov 1980 forest fire in Tibillica, south of Eden destroyed about 440,000 hectares of forest.
 * 3) <span style="font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;,&#39;Lucida Grande&#39;,sans-serif;">Logging leads to soil erosion. This is due to burning on the site and the construction of roads and tracks associated with the logging activities in the forest.*
 * 4) <span style="font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;,&#39;Lucida Grande&#39;,sans-serif;">Logging also leads to the destruction of the ecosystem. This comes about as a result of the removal of certain species of plants or animals which are key elements of the food chain in the forest. E.g psyllid, is a type of insect in the Indonesian forest which survives by sucking the saps of eucalyptus (type of trees found in the forest).
 * 5) <span style="font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;,&#39;Lucida Grande&#39;,sans-serif;">It leads to food shortages, as the forest is destroyed because the area becomes desert thereby resulting in a fall in food production. Read Planet Geog, Pp 593-595 for details


 * <span style="font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;,&#39;Lucida Grande&#39;,sans-serif;">Environmental consequences of oil extraction **

<span style="font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;,&#39;Lucida Grande&#39;,sans-serif;">2. Case study of oil exploitation in Alaska(USA) <span style="font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;,&#39;Lucida Grande&#39;,sans-serif;">Oil in Alaska contains about one-third of USA’s known oil reserves. <span style="font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;,&#39;Lucida Grande&#39;,sans-serif;">Oil exploitation in Alaska has resulted in the transportation of oil using pipelines(1242km in length across Alaska from Prudhoe Bay to Valdez) and giant oil tankers by road and by sea. <span style="font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;,&#39;Lucida Grande&#39;,sans-serif;">These routes were opposed by environmental pressure groups because of the environmental impact it may have. <span style="font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;,&#39;Lucida Grande&#39;,sans-serif;">• Arguments against: <span style="font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;,&#39;Lucida Grande&#39;,sans-serif;">• For details on this case study, read New Wider World, pP 128-131. Very good information on this topic
 * 1) <span style="font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;,&#39;Lucida Grande&#39;,sans-serif;">It will lead to the destruction of the vegetation
 * 2) <span style="font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;,&#39;Lucida Grande&#39;,sans-serif;">They argued that the tundra ecosystem is a very fragile one and its destruction could make it difficult to regenerate it.
 * 3) <span style="font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;,&#39;Lucida Grande&#39;,sans-serif;">That oil spills were a threat to the environment, human life and property.
 * 4) <span style="font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;,&#39;Lucida Grande&#39;,sans-serif;">The Exxon Oil spill in Nov. 1989 resulted in the destruction of 35,000 seabirds, and 3000 sea otters were recovered. It cost Exxon $600million to clean-up and fishing in the affected coastal areas was heavily affected.
 * 5) <span style="font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;,&#39;Lucida Grande&#39;,sans-serif;">The pipelines also had a negative impact on the adjacent national parks and wildlife refuges.
 * 6) <span style="font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;,&#39;Lucida Grande&#39;,sans-serif;">Water pollution: caused by tanker illegally cleaning out tanks in the North Sea.


 * <span style="font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;,&#39;Lucida Grande&#39;,sans-serif;">The Concept of Food Miles **

<span style="font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;,&#39;Lucida Grande&#39;,sans-serif;">The concept of food miles has existed for some time now. However, in agriculture, food miles seem to have become popular only recently. In 2005, the UK Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA, 2005: i) defines food miles as “the distance food travels from the farm to consumer.” More sophisticated versions of the concept relate to energy use, carbon emissions, or other measures of environmental damage. <span style="font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;,&#39;Lucida Grande&#39;,sans-serif;">•Using examples, explain the strengths and weaknesses of the concept of food miles.


 * <span style="font-family: "Lucida Sans Unicode","Lucida Grande",sans-serif;">Why food miles? **
 * 1) <span style="font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;,&#39;Lucida Grande&#39;,sans-serif;">Increased trade in food;
 * 2) <span style="font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;,&#39;Lucida Grande&#39;,sans-serif;">Declining transport costs, new technologies, and lower tariff barriers;
 * 3) <span style="font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;,&#39;Lucida Grande&#39;,sans-serif;">Growing demand for out-of-season, processed (pre-packaged) products;
 * 4) <span style="font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;,&#39;Lucida Grande&#39;,sans-serif;">Environmental concerns, such as climate change;
 * 5) <span style="font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;,&#39;Lucida Grande&#39;,sans-serif;">A rise in protectionist sentiment in developed countries and a growing concern among farmers’ organizations about the impact of increased imports on local producers;
 * 6) <span style="font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;,&#39;Lucida Grande&#39;,sans-serif;">Food security concerns caused by rising food prices
 * 7) <span style="font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;,&#39;Lucida Grande&#39;,sans-serif;">International food trade has increased in recent years, along with trade in most other goods and services.


 * Benefits of the concept of food miles:**
 * They give an indication of the carbon footprint from farm-gate to retail location
 * They allow consumers to know the origin of the food they are buying.
 * They also provide information about the likely type of transportation used and the relative costs of different forms of transport.


 * Criticism of the concept of food miles:**
 * 1) They do not take account of the carbon footprint of food production methods or the energy/water requirements used in different farming systems. Locally produced foods may have low food miles but a very high energy footprint (eg growing out-ofseason crops in greenhouses).
 * 2) Delivery of farm produce to retailers and consumers may not necessarily take the shortest route available.
 * 3) Food miles give no indication of the use of organic methods.
 * 4) The food miles concept ignores other environmental aspects eg sustainability, indices of water usage, energy efficiency, the use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides, and their effect on local ecosystems.
 * 5) Food miles concept emphasizes the use of one input (distance and energy use in the more sophisticated version), but ignores others, such as labor and capital.
 * 6) The mode and scale of transport are important determinants of the quantity of energy used. Sea transport has a relatively low environmental impact, followed by rail, road, and air transport. According to a report (Eating Oil), a traditional Christmas meal travels about 38,000km, from the producer to the supermarket.
 * 7) Scale problems in measuring distance traveled relate to the size of the vehicle. For example, 10 tonnes of grain traveling 1,000km in a 10 tonne truck uses less energy than 10 tonne of grain traveling the same distance in 20 half-ton trucks.
 * 8) Food miles only considers the carbon footprints produced from the transportation of the food, and not the production of the food itself, not what happens after the food is bought from the supermarket.
 * 9) Its focus is narrow, as it excludes other forms of energy inputs such as direct and indirect inputs, namely irrigation and pesticides. Food miles does not give an indication of the use of organic methods of farming.


 * **Environmental impact of air travel**

<span style="font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;,&#39;Lucida Grande&#39;,sans-serif;">The concerns raised about the impact of food miles on the environment and local markets for agric products led to the need to assess the environmental impact of air travel as a way by which food travels from the producer to the consumer. Environmentalists argue that there is the need to conserve the energy used by aircrafts to transport food from one place to another for two reasons: <span style="font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;,&#39;Lucida Grande&#39;,sans-serif;">§ To reduce demand on energy resources (jet fuel) which is becoming increasingly expensive <span style="font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;,&#39;Lucida Grande&#39;,sans-serif;">§ Save the environment of pollution by jet engines.

<span style="font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;,&#39;Lucida Grande&#39;,sans-serif;">They argue that airplanes pollute the environment in the following ways:
 * 1) <span style="font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;,&#39;Lucida Grande&#39;,sans-serif;">Aircrafts flying at high altitudes release chemicals that disturb the composition of the upper atmosphere. E.g. nitrogen oxide from jet engine exhaust leads to the destruction of the ozone layer which increases global warming.
 * 2) <span style="font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;,&#39;Lucida Grande&#39;,sans-serif;">Carbon dioxide is emitted by air crafts which accounts for 12% of global CO2 emission. This leads to global warming by increasing global temperatures due to ozone depletion
 * 3) <span style="font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;,&#39;Lucida Grande&#39;,sans-serif;">Contrails (trail of aircrafts) also has serious environmental impact. These trails become clouds that increases global warming by trapping heat released from the earth back to the atmosphere. Contrails contribute to 1% of green house gases.
 * 4) <span style="font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;,&#39;Lucida Grande&#39;,sans-serif;">Airport Externalities. Airports are a major nuisance to those who live or work in their vicinity. The major problems are
 * <span style="font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;,&#39;Lucida Grande&#39;,sans-serif;">the noise generated by planes taking off and landing.
 * <span style="font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;,&#39;Lucida Grande&#39;,sans-serif;">Another problem is road traffic congestion created by those needing access to the airport.
 * <span style="font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;,&#39;Lucida Grande&#39;,sans-serif;">The construction of airports also leads to large scale land degradation, destruction of fauna and flora and increase in run-off leading to soil erosion and silting and subsequently water pollution